Federal Constitutional Court

"German Supreme Court" redirects here. For the German supreme court of 1879 to 1945, see Reichsgericht.

Federal Constitutional Court
Bundesverfassungsgericht
49°00′45″N 8°24′06″E
Established	1951
Jurisdiction	Federal Republic of Germany
Location	Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Coordinates	49°00′45″N 8°24′06″E
Composition method	Election by Bundestag and Bundesrat
Authorised by	Basic Law for Germany
Judge term length	12 years (mandatory retirement at 68)
Number of positions	16
Annual budget	€37.17 million (2021)
Website	www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de
President
Currently	Stephan Harbarth
Since	22 June 2020
Vice President
Currently	Doris König
Since	22 June 2020

Bundesverfassungsgericht

Oral proceedings in the courtroom (November 1974)

Library (foreground) and Courtroom (background)

The Federal Constitutional Court (German: Bundesverfassungsgericht [bʊndəsfɛʁˈfasʊŋsɡəˌʁɪçt] ^ⓘ; abbreviated: BVerfG) is the supreme constitutional court for the Federal Republic of Germany, established by the constitution or Basic Law (Grundgesetz) of Germany. Since its inception with the beginning of the post-World War II republic, the court has been located in the city of Karlsruhe, which is also the seat of the Federal Court of Justice.

The main task of the Federal Constitutional Court is judicial review, and it may declare legislation unconstitutional, thus rendering them ineffective. In this respect, it is similar to other supreme courts with judicial review powers, yet the court possesses a number of additional powers and is regarded as among the most interventionist and powerful national courts in the world. Unlike other supreme courts, the constitutional court is not an integral stage of the judicial or appeals process (aside from cases concerning constitutional or public international law), and does not serve as a regular appellate court from lower courts or the Federal Supreme Courts on any violation of federal laws.

The court's jurisdiction is focused on constitutional issues and the compliance of all governmental institutions with the constitution. Constitutional amendments or changes passed by the parliament are subject to its judicial review since they have to be compatible with the most basic principles of the Grundgesetz defined by the eternity clause.

Scope

The Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany stipulates that all three branches of the state (the legislature, executive, and judiciary) are bound directly by the constitution in Article 20, Section 3 of the document. As a result, the court can rule acts of any branches unconstitutional, whether as formal violations (exceeding powers or violating procedures) or as material conflicts (when the civil rights prescribed in the Grundgesetz are not respected).

The powers of the Federal Constitutional Court are defined in article 94 of the Grundgesetz. More detailed regulation is in the Federal Constitutional Court Act (Bundesverfassungsgerichtsgesetz), which also defines how decisions of the court on material conflicts are put into force. The Constitutional Court has therefore several strictly defined procedures in which cases may be brought before it:

• Constitutional complaint: By means of the Verfassungsbeschwerde (constitutional complaint) any person may allege that his or her constitutional rights have been violated. Although only a small fraction of these are actually successful (ranging around 2.5% since 1951), several have resulted in major legislation being invalidated, especially in the field of taxation. The large majority of the court's procedures fall into this category; 135,968 such complaints were filed from 1957 to 2002.
  • Municipalities and associations of municipalities may also file a Verfassungsbeschwerde alleging interference in their Article 28 right to self-government.
• Abstract regulation control: The federal government, the state governments, or one-quarter of the membership of the Bundestag may bring a state or federal law before the court if they consider it unconstitutional. A well-known example of this procedure was the 1975 abortion decision, which invalidated legislation intended to decriminalise abortion.
• Specific regulation control: Any regular court which is convinced that a law in question for a certain case is not constitutional must suspend that case and bring that law to the Federal Constitutional Court.
• Federal dispute: Federal institutions, including members of the Bundestag, may bring disputes over the scope of their powers and their duties before the court.
• State–federal dispute:
  • The federal government, the state governments, or one-quarter of the members of the Bundestag may ask the court to determine whether a state law conforms to federal law.
  • The Bundesrat, a state government, or a state parliament may ask the court to determine whether a federal law complies with Article 72(2) of the Grundgesetz (regarding subsidiarity on topics for which both the federal and state governments may pass legislation).
  • Any other dispute between a state and the federal government where no other legal recourse exists.
• Federal election scrutiny:
  • The Bundestag certifies the results of federal and European Parliament elections. The Constitutional Court hears complaints regarding this certification, or violations of law or civil rights in the conduct of the election. These complaints may be raised within two months of the election by an entitled voter or group of voters, only if it was previously raised to the Bundestag and rejected; a parliamentary group of the Bundestag; or one-tenth of the size of the Bundestag set by law (currently 63 members).
  • Political associations may file a complaint over their non-recognition as a party in a federal election.
• Impeachment procedure:
  • Impeachment proceedings may be brought against the Federal President for an intentional violation of federal law or the Basic Law with a two-thirds vote of the Bundestag or Bundesrat. The responsible body must submit a complaint to the Constitutional Court detailing the action (or failure to act) which violated the law. The court hears the complaint and decides on the removal of the President; it also has the power to suspend the President from his duties during the proceedings.
  • A majority of the Bundestag may impeach any federal judge for "infringing the principles of the Basic Law or the constitutional order of a state". The Constitutional Court hears the complaint, and may order the judge's transfer or retirement. If the court finds the violation is intentional, it may also remove the judge from office.
• Prohibition or hostile classification of a political party:
  • Article 21(2) of the Basic Law gives the Constitutional Court the power to ban political parties that either threaten the existence of Germany or "seek to undermine or abolish the free democratic basic order". This has happened just twice, both times in the 1950s: the Socialist Reich Party (SRP), a neo-Nazi group, was banned in 1952, and the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) was banned in 1956. There have been two complaints seeking to ban another neo-Nazi party, The Homeland: the first, filed by the federal government, failed in 2003 when it was revealed that a significant proportion of the then–National Democratic Party (NPD) leadership were informants for the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution and it could not be proven that they were acting of their own agency. The Court ruled against a second, filed by the state governments, in 2017; it found the party was "clearly ideologically unconstitutional" but not politically significant enough to pose an active threat.
  • In 2017, the Bundestag created a less stringent Article 21(3), in which the Constitutional Court may exclude parties "oriented towards undermining or abolishing the free democratic basic order" or the German state from public financing. The federal government, Bundestag, and Bundesrat jointly sumbitted a complaint regarding The Homeland under this article in 2019. The court ruled for it in January 2024, and The Homeland is now excluded from public financing until 2030.
• Restriction of fundamental rights: The federal or state governments may file a complaint alleging that an individual is using their basic freedoms (freedom of speech, the press, and of teaching or assembly; the right to the secrecy of communication, the right to property, and the right to apply to asylum) to undermine the democratic order or the German state. The Constitutional Court may decide to restrict that individual's basic freedoms, and it is free to decide which and to what extent. Four complaints have been filed, and all have been rejected.
• Loss of Bundestag membership: If an elected member of the Bundestag is involuntarily removed, through ineligibility to stand for election or membership of a prohibited political party, they may appeal the decision to the Constitutional Court.
• Original jurisdiction by law: The Constitutional Court may hear any other dispute which is specifically assigned to it by federal law. An example is a dispute over an Article 29 referendum (which must be called to approve any changes in state boundaries).

Up to 2009, the Constitutional Court had struck down more than 600 laws as unconstitutional.

Organization

The court consists of two senates, each of which has eight members, headed by a senate chairperson. The members of each senate are allocated to three chambers for hearings in constitutional complaint and single regulation control cases. Each chamber consists of three judges, so each senate chair is at the same time a member of two chambers. The court publishes selected decisions on its website and since 1996 a public relations department promotes selected decisions with press releases.

Decisions by a senate require a majority. In some cases a two-thirds vote is required. Decisions by a chamber need to be unanimous. A chamber is not authorized to overrule a standing precedent of the senate to which it belongs; such issues need to be submitted to the senate as a whole. Similarly, a senate may not overrule a standing precedent of the other senate, and such issues will be submitted to a plenary meeting of all 16 judges (the Plenum).

Unlike all other German courts, the court often publishes the vote count on its decisions (though only the final tally, not every judge's personal vote) and even allows its members to issue a dissenting opinion. This possibility, introduced only in 1971, is a remarkable deviation from German judicial tradition.

One of the two senate chairs is also the president of the court, the other one being the vice president. The presidency alternates between the two senates, i.e. the successor of a president is always chosen from the other senate. The 10th and current president of the court is Stephan Harbarth.

Democratic function

The Constitutional Court actively administers the law and ensures that political and bureaucratic decisions comply with the rights of the individual enshrined in the Basic Law. Specifically, it can vet the democratic and constitutional legitimacy of bills proposed by federal or state government, scrutinise decisions (such as those relating to taxation) by the administration, arbitrate disputes over the implementation of law between states and the federal government and (most controversially) ban non-democratic political parties. The Constitutional Court enjoys more public trust than the federal or state parliaments, which possibly derives from the German enthusiasm for the rule of law.

Appointment of judges

See also: List of justices of the Federal Constitutional Court

The court's judges are elected by the Bundestag (the German parliament) and the Bundesrat (a legislative body that represents the sixteen state governments on the federal level). According to the Basic Law, each of these bodies selects four members of each senate. The election of a judge requires a two-thirds vote. The selection of the chairperson of each senate alternates between Bundestag and Bundesrat and also requires a two-thirds vote.

Up until 2015, the Bundestag delegated this task to a special committee (Richterwahlausschuss, judges' election committee), consisting of a small number of Bundestag members. This procedure had caused some constitutional concern and was considered to be unconstitutional by many scholars. In 2015, the Bundesverfassungsgerichtsgesetz (Federal Constitutional Court Act) was changed in this respect. In this new system, it is the Bundestag itself that elects judges to the court, and this by secret ballot in the plenum. To be selected, candidates must get a two-thirds majority of those present at the vote, and provided that the number of votes in favor constitutes an absolute majority of the total membership of the Bundestag, including those not present at the vote. The Richterwahlausschuss retains the power to nominate candidates. This new procedure was applied for the first time in September 2017, when Josef Christ was elected to the first senate as the successor of Wilhelm Schluckebier. In the Bundesrat, a chamber in which the governments of the sixteen German states are represented (each state has 3 to 6 votes depending on its population, which it has to cast en bloc), a candidate currently needs at least 46 of 69 possible votes.

If a vacancy is not filled within two months, the court may nominate a replacement itself at the request of the highest-ranking official of the responsible body – either the oldest member of the Richterwahlausschuss or the president of the Bundesrat.

The judges are in principle elected for a 12-year term, though they must retire upon reaching the age of 68 regardless of how much of the 12 years they have served. Re-election is not possible. A judge must be at least 40 years old and must be a well-trained jurist. Three out of eight members of each senate have served as a judge on one of the federal courts. Of the other five members of each senate, most judges previously served as academic jurists at a university, as public servants or as a lawyer. After ending their term, most judges withdraw themselves from public life. However, there are some prominent exceptions, most notably Roman Herzog, who was elected President of Germany in 1994, shortly before the end of his term as president of the court.

Constitutional reform

Previously, nearly all detail of the court's structure and function was not in the Basic Law but regulated by the Bundesverfassungsgerichtsgesetz, which as regular law was subject to change only by a simple majority vote. A 2024 constitutional amendment wrote the two-thirds majority election requirement, the term and age limit, and the 16-judge and two-senate structure into a new Article 93 of the Basic Law (thereby moving the regulation of the court's jurisdiction and powers to Article 94). These details now require a two-thirds majority of the Bundestag to be modified.

This amendment also added a provision allowing regular law to provide for the transfer of one legislative body's right to elect a judge to the other. Concurrently, the Bundesverfassungsgerichtsgesetz was amended such that the transfer automatically takes place if a vacancy is not filled within three months of a nomination by the court (i.e., ensuring a vacancy lasts at most five months). Any judge elected in this manner is treated as if they were elected by the originally responsible body, so it does not get additional nominations by failing to act. (In practice, this measure foresees an uncooperative bloc that prevents the Bundestag from reaching a two-thirds majority, thus allowing the transfer its election right to the Bundesrat and the avoidance of deadlock.)

Current members

See also: List of justices of the Federal Constitutional Court § Current justices of the Federal Constitutional Court

First Senate 1989

Second Senate 1989

Name	Term	Nomination by	Election by
First Senate
Stephan Harbarth (born 1971) (President of the Court, Chairman of the First Senate)	November 2018 – November 2030 (12-year-term)	CDU/CSU	Bundestag (as judge) Bundesrat (as president)
Miriam Meßling (born 1973)	April 2023 – April 2035 (12-year term)	SPD	Bundesrat
Yvonne Ott (born 1963)	November 2016 – November 2028 (12-year-term)	SPD	Bundesrat
Josef Christ (born 1956)	November 2017 – 2024 (retirement)	CDU/CSU	Bundestag
Henning Radtke (born 1962)	July 2018 – May 2030 (retirement)	CDU/CSU	Bundesrat
Ines Härtel (born 1972)	July 2020 – July 2032 (12-year term)	SPD	Bundesrat
Heinrich Amadeus Wolff (born 1965)	June 2022 – June 2033 (retirement)	FDP	Bundestag
Martin Eifert (born 1965)	February 2023 – 2033 (retirement)	Greens	Bundestag
Second Senate
Doris König (born 1957) (Vice president of the Court, Chairwoman of the Second Senate)	June 2014 – June 2025 (retirement)	SPD	Bundestag (both as judge and as vice president)
Ulrich Maidowski (born 1958)	July 2014 – July 2026 (12-year term)	SPD	Bundestag
Christine Langenfeld (born 1962)	July 2016 – July 2028 (12-year term)	CDU/CSU	Bundesrat
Astrid Wallrabenstein (born 1969)	June 2020 – June 2032 (12-year term)	Greens	Bundesrat
Rhona Fetzer (born 1963)	January 2023 – September 2031 (retirement)	SPD	Bundestag
Thomas Offenloch (born 1972)	January 2023 – January 2035 (12-year term)	FDP	Bundestag
Peter Frank (born 1968)	December 2023 – December 2035 (12-year term)	CDU/CSU	Bundesrat
Holger Wöckel (born 1976)	December 2023 – December 2035 (12-year term)	CDU/CSU	Bundesrat

Presidents of the court

The court's head is the president of the Federal Constitutional Court, who chairs one of the two senates and joint sessions of the court, while the other senate is chaired by the vice president of Federal Constitutional Court. The right to elect the president and the vice president alternates between the Bundestag and the Bundesrat. If the president of the Federal Constitutional Court leaves office, i.e. when his or her term as judge at the court ends, the legislative body, whose turn it is to choose the president, has to elect one of the judges of the senate, of which the former president was not a member, with a two-thirds majority. If the office of the vice president falls vacant, a new vice president is elected from the senate, of which the sitting president is not a member, by the legislative body, which has not elected the former vice president. The given legislative body is free to elect the judge it prefers, but with respect to the position of president, it has been always the sitting vice president, who was elected president, since 1983.

The president of the Federal Constitutional Court ranks fifth in the German order of precedence, as the highest-ranking representative of the judicial branch of government.

No.	Portrait	Name (birth-death)	Previous service before court appointment	Took office	Left office	Sen.	Vice president
1		Hermann Höpker-Aschoff (1883–1954)	Member of the Bundestag (1949–1951)	7 September 1951	15 January 1954 (died in office)	1st	Rudolf Katz (1951–1954)
2		Josef Wintrich (1891–1958)	President of the Munich Regional court of appeal (1953)	23 March 1954	19 October 1958 (died in office)	1st	Rudolf Katz (1954–1958)
3		Gebhard Müller (1900–1990)	Minister President of Baden-Württemberg (1953–1958)	8 January 1959	8 December 1971	1st	Rudolf Katz (1959–1961), Friedrich Wilhelm Wagner (1961–1967), Walter Seuffert (1967–1971)
4		Ernst Benda (1925–2009)	Member of the Bundestag (1957–1971)	8 December 1971	20 December 1983	1st	Walter Seuffert (1971–1975), Wolfgang Zeidler (1975–1983)
5		Wolfgang Zeidler (1924–1987)	President of the Federal Administrative Court (1970–1975)	20 December 1983	16 November 1987	2nd	Roman Herzog (1983–1987)
6		Roman Herzog (1934–2017)	Baden-Württemberg State Minister of the Interior (1980–1983)	16 November 1987	30 June 1994 (resigned)	1st	Ernst Gottfried Mahrenholz (1987–1994), Jutta Limbach (1994)
7		Jutta Limbach (1934–2016)	Berlin Senator of Justice (1989–1994)	14 September 1994	10 April 2002	2nd	Johann Friedrich Henschel (1994–1995), Otto Seidl (1995–1998), Hans-Jürgen Papier (1998–2002)
8		Hans-Jürgen Papier (b. 1943)	Professor for constitutional law at the LMU Munich (1992–1998)	10 April 2002	16 March 2010	1st	Winfried Hassemer (2002–2008), Andreas Voßkuhle (2008–2010)
9		Andreas Voßkuhle (b. 1963)	Professor for political science and legal philosophy at the University of Freiburg (since 1999) Rector of the University of Freiburg (2008)	16 March 2010	22 June 2020	2nd	Ferdinand Kirchhof (2010–2018), Stephan Harbarth (2018–2020)
10		Stephan Harbarth (b. 1971)	Member of the Bundestag (2009–2018)	22 June 2020		1st	Doris König (since 2020)

Criticism

The court has been subject to criticism. One complaint is the perceived function as a replacement lawmaker (German: Ersatzgesetzgeber) because it has overturned controversial policies numerous times, such as the Luftsicherheitsgesetz, the Mietendeckel (rent cap) of Berlin, and parts of the Ostpolitik. This behavior has been interpreted as a hindrance to the normal functioning of the parliament.

Another criticism of the federal constitutional court issued by the former president of the Federal Intelligence Service, August Hanning, is that the court tends to overprotect people, according to him, even members of ISIS. He considers that to hinder the efficiency of German intelligence agencies in favour of protecting people in far-away countries.

Finally, numerous decisions have been criticised and sparked demonstrations.

Landmark decisions

Year	Case	Unofficial name	Synopsis	Legal principles set	Consequences
Human dignity
1993	2 BvF 2/90	(None)	Federal lawmakers permitted abortion within twelve weeks after implantation. To be legal the expectant mother had to go to a pregnancy consultation minimum three days in advance and the abortion has to be their own decision.	If a pregnancy is not the result of a criminal interaction or a threat to the mother's life or health an abortion violates the right to life of an embryo. As a result, in the last case, abortion has to be prohibited.	Following the decision the lawmakers changed the criminal law. They prohibited abortion within twelve weeks but after using a pregnancy consultation all participants go unpunished.
2003	1 BvR 426/02	Benetton II	The Federal Court of Justice prohibited the magazine Stern to publish a shocking advertisement of the Benetton Group. The advertisement showed a bare bottom with a stamp: "HIV-positive".	Human dignity is absolute. All fundamental rights are substantiations of human dignity therefore there is no trade-off of human dignity and any fundamental right possible.	The case was remanded to the Federal Court of Justice for a second time. After Benetton II the plaintiff abandoned the lawsuit. A final decision was unnecessary.
2006	1 BvR 357/05	Civil aviation security act decision	Federal lawmakers permitted the military to shoot down civil aeroplanes if there is an indication that they will be used as a weapon against human lives and a shoot-down is the last resort.	Human dignity is inviolable. There cannot be any trade-off of the lives of innocent people. The military can be used as disaster relief, but the use of military weapons violates the constitution. Only the federal government can order the military to provide disaster relief.	The disputed part of the civil aviation security act was declared void. Basically, the court decided that a shoot-down could be legal if a flight vehicle is unmanned or there are only suspects on board.
Protection of fundamental rights
1957	1 BvR 253/56	Elfes-Decision (Elfes-Urteil)	Wilhelm Elfes, a left-wing member of the centre-right CDU, was accused of working against the constitution but was never convicted. Based on this indictment he was denied a passport multiple times. Elfes litigated against the decision.	The right to personal liberty is to be construed in a broad way. Invention of "Heck's Formula" (named after the rapporteur of the case, Justice Heck). The court can only review cases if one of the following conditions applies: The impact of a constitutional norm was misjudged Application of the law was discretionary Judicial restraint was violated	Elfes lost his specific case but the court cemented personal liberty in general. Justice Heck defined the limits of the court relative to the specialised court system.
1958	1 BvR 400/51	Lüth Decision (Lüth-Urteil)	The court of Hamburg prohibited Erich Lüth to call for a boycott of the film Immortal Beloved. Lüth justified his action because director Veit Harlan also was responsible for the antisemitic movie Jud Süß in 1940.	The Basic Law binds private law indirectly. The Federal Constitutional Court is not a regular appellate court on violation of federal law. The court only overviews violation of the Basic Law.	With the Lüth Decision the court defined and restricted its own power. But on the other hand, it expanded the effective range of the Basic Law beyond the tension of government and people to the private law. The Basic Law does not bind citizens but it binds the lawmakers in creating private law and the judiciary in interpreting it.
2021	1 BvR 2656/18, 1 BvR 78/20, 1 BvR 96/20, 1 BvR 288/20	(Klimaschutz)	In 2019 the German federal government implemented the Climate Protection Act, to transpose the Paris Agreement into German law. It defined CO2-reduction goals for 2030 but did not describe how to reach the 1.5°C/2°C limitation beyond that year. The German branch of Fridays for Future litigated against the law because it would put an undue burden to their freedom and the freedom of the generations to come.	The Basic Law binds legislation to protect the liberty of actual people as well as the freedoms of generations to come. Legislation has to implement laws in a way that does not put an undue burden on the liberty of young people or future generations. The decision was unanimous.	The court instructed the federal government to implement the law in a way that does not put most of the effort needed to reach the goals of the Paris Agreement to future generations. Personal liberty is not to be interpreted in a way that restricts the personal liberty of future generations inappropriately.
Development of fundamental rights by the court
1983	1 BvR 209/83 1 BvR 269/83 1 BvR 362/83 1 BvR 420/83 1 BvR 440/83 1 BvR 484/83	Census Verdict (Volkszählungsurteil)	Citizens litigated against the German census 1983	Personal freedom under modern conditions depends on the right to be protected against unlimited data processing, use, collection, storage and disclosure. There is nothing like irrelevant data.	The census was postponed to 1987 until the "census 1983 act" was changed corresponding to the verdict. The court created, by deriving from human dignity and personal liberty, a new civil right: informational self-determination. The verdict became the foundation of the modern German Data Protection Act (1990) and the EU Data Protection Directive (1998).
Freedom of expression
2000	1 BvR 1762/95 & 1 BvR 1787/95	Benetton I	The Federal Court of Justice prohibited the magazine Stern to publish shocking advertisements of the Benetton Group. The advertisements showed a bird doused with oil, child labour and a bare buttock with a stamp: "HIV-positive".	The publishing of an opinion of a third party that is protected by freedom of expression is protected itself.	The case was remanded to the Federal Court of Justice whose new decision was challenged again as "Benetton II".
Freedom of art
1971	1 BvR 435/68	Mephisto judgment (Mephisto-Entscheidung)	The heir of Gustaf Gründgens successfully sued the publisher of the 1936 novel Mephisto by Gründgens' former brother-in-law Klaus Mann to stop publishing the book. It was prohibited by all lower courts.	Freedom of art is guaranteed by the Basic Law, but it finds its limit in human dignity and likewise in personality right. Because freedom of art is to be construed in a broad sense, weighing up has to be comprehensive and a case by case decision.	Due to a split decision the ban of the novel was upheld. It was the first decision of the court on the interpretation of freedom of art. Apart from the concrete decision, the court made clear that freedom of art cannot be limited by general laws.

Impact on European constitutional questions

On 12 September 2012, the Court stated that the question of whether the ECB's decision to finance European constituent nations through the purchase of bonds on the secondary markets was ultra vires because it exceeded the limits established by the German act approving the ESM was to be examined. This demonstrates how a citizen's group has the ability to affect the conduct of European institutions. On 7 February 2014, the Court made a preliminary announcement on the case, which was to be published in full on 18 March. In its ruling, the Court decided to leave judgment to the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU).

In this regard, the ruling of May 5, 2020, deemed an act of the EU and the Weiss Judgment of the Court of Justice "ultra vires", for having exceeded the powers granted by the Member States. The EU decided to initiate infringement proceedings against Germany. In response to the notification, the German government provided the European Commission with satisfactory assurances. As a result, the case was closed in December 2021.

See also

• List of justices of the Federal Constitutional Court
• Judiciary
• Rechtsstaat
• Rule according to higher law
• Rule of law
• Streitbare Demokratie
• Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution
• Baumgarten-Bau

Further reading

• Collings, Justin (2015). Democracy's Guardians : a History of the German Federal Constitutional Court, 1951-2001. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-19-181500-3. OCLC 920859864.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Bibliography

• Allen, Christopher S. (10 February 2009). "Chapter 4: Germany". In Kesselman, Mark; Krieger, Joel; Joseph, William A (eds.). Introduction to Comparative Politics. Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-495-79741-8.
• Law, David S. (2009). "The Anatomy of a Conservative Court: Judicial Review in Japan". Texas Law Review. 87: 1545–1593. SSRN 1406169.
• "Judgment Days: Germany's Constitutional Court". The Economist. 28 March 2009.
• Lenaerts, Koen; Gutman, Kathleen (2006). "'Federal Common Law' in the European Union: A Comparative Perspective from the United States". The American Journal of Comparative Law. 54 (1): 1–121. doi:10.1093/ajcl/54.1.1. JSTOR 20454486.
• Pruezel-Thomas. "The abortion issue and the federal constitutional court". German Politics. 2 (3).
• Johnson. "The federal constitutional court: Facing up to the strains of law and politics in the new Germany". German Politics. 3 (3).

External links

• Official website
• Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG) (in German)
• Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG) – web archive (in English)
• Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG) – germanlawarchive (in English)
• Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG) – germanlawarchive at 20180609 (in English)